Iodine Intake and Testosterone
Arcangelo Barbonetti JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(12):e2348573.
Introduction
According to World Health Organization reports, due to iodization policies, iodine intake has long been adequate or even excessive in many countries worldwide, so communities could be at risk of possible adverse effects of excess iodine.1 Iodine transporters, namely sodium/iodide symporter and pendrin, have been identified in extrathyroidal tissues, including testis.2,3 While both iodine deficiency and excess are associated with poorer seminal quality and longer time to pregnancy,4 to our knowledge no information exists on the relationship between iodine exposure and testosterone in humans. This study used a nationally representative sample of the US population from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to explore the association between urinary iodine concentration (UIC) and testosterone levels.
Methods
In this cross-sectional study, we used 5 cycles of NHANES that included data on total testosterone (TT) and UIC (1999-2002 and 2011-2016), which are publicly available on the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. The NHANES was approved by the National Center for Health Statistics ethics review board, and participants provided written consent. We followed the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) reporting guideline. UIC and TT levels were determined by inductively coupled plasma dynamic reaction cell mass spectroscopy and isotope dilution high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry, respectively. Free testosterone was calculated (cFT) with the Vermeulen formula. Overall, 11 433 male participants for whom TT levels were available were surveyed. After excluding 7536 participants due to missing UIC data and 963 participants under the age of 18 years, 2934 men were matched. No differences were found between included and excluded populations (eTable in Supplement 1). Differences among UIC groups were evaluated with Wilcoxon rank-sum test or χ2 test, as appropriate. Covariates included in univariate regressions were chosen based on prior pathophysiological knowledge. Multivariable linear regression analysis on log-transformed values assessed the independent association between continuous UIC and TT levels, after adjustment for variables exhibiting univariate associations with TT.
We used R statistical software version 4.2.2 (R Project for Statistical Computing). A 2-tailed P ≤ .05 indicated statistical significance.
Results
A total of 2934 men were included (mean [SD] age, 47.1 [18.4] years). As shown in Table 1, men with low UIC had higher TT and cFT levels than those with normal and high UIC. The low-UIC group was younger and had a more favorable metabolic and glycolipid profile, including lower body mass index. Differences were also found in ethnicity, alcohol intake, education, marital status, and creatinine levels (Table 1).
In the multivariable linear regression models including covariates selected by univariate analyses, the negative association between UIC and TT persisted after full adjustment (Table 2). When analysis was repeated by entering cFT as the dependent variable, cFT was negatively associated with UIC in the fully adjusted model (β = −0.031; 95% CI, −0.056 to −0.005).
Discussion
In this study, lower UIC was associated with higher testosterone levels independent of factors that may influence androgen status, including age and features of metabolic syndrome, whose prevalence is positively associated with UIC.5 This unprecedented evidence deserves to be clarified in its causal directionality. While an interaction between iodine intake, thyroid hormones, and testosterone cannot be definitively ruled out, excess iodine could affect testicular steroidogenesis directly. In studies with rats, after a high iodine–diet feeding, iodine accumulates in the testis and triggers oxidative stress that inhibits 3β- and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity, thus lowering testosterone synthesis.6
Study limitations include the cross-sectional design that does not establish cause-effect relationships, residual unmeasured confounding, and unavailability of gonadotropin measurements that could have pointed toward the interference level(s). Additionally, UIC may not entirely reflect body iodine status, being influenced by hydration and recent iodine intake.
In conclusion, lower UIC is independently associated with higher testosterone levels. Caution should be paid to excessive iodine supplementation.